The article being reviewed in this essay, Essays

The article being reviewed in this essay, Essays The article being reviewed in this essay, Essay The article being reviewed in this essay, Essay The article being reviewed in this essay, ‘Land Tenure Insecurity and Inequality in Nicaragua’ by Rikke J Broegaard, was written in September 2005 as a research paper for the Danish Institute for International Studies. It represents the continuance of research work carried out by Broegaard in this field. Indeed, it was the capable country of his PhD research. Indeed, in my sentiment, the most interesting facet of this survey is to compare the development of both methods and thoughts from Broegaard’s earlier work. Subsequently in this essay, I will be looking at an article carbon monoxide written by Broegaard in 2002, and will be looking more closely at how his work has developed. To decently reexamine this article, it is necessary to to the full understand the historical context of this research, and I will seek to make this briefly at the beginning of this paper. At the nucleus of this issue is the land expropriated under the Sandinista authorities jurisprudence that declared a piece of belongings abandoned if the proprietor was off for six months or more, three months if the proprietor went to the USA. The Sandinista authorities made land ownership for the hapless a precedence through the 1980’s, and under their land Torahs, land was parcelled out to 200,000 of the country’s poorest households by the manner of 30ft ten 15ft secret plans. Unfortunately, the authorities failed to supply rubrics to the land. When the Sandinista authorities fell in the 1990 elections, the full system crumbled. Previous landholders, who had fled Nicaragua, returned to the state to repossess the belongingss which they had abandoned. The authoritiess who have followed the Sandinistas into power have wholly failed to decide the land issues. Indeed the state of affairs appears to hold become more helter-skelter than of all time. As has been stated by Carol Hartman, â€Å"Nicaragua’s long term stableness could depend on deciding this thorny issue.† ( 1 ) This has non happened. Harmonizing to Mark Everingham: â€Å"The triumph of Arnoldo Aleman and the broad confederation in October 1996 raised optimism among 1000s of claimants who were disappointed with the Chamorro government’s willingness to suit Sandinista objectives.† ( 2 ) This optimism was short lived. New Torahs on belongings statute law introduced in February 1998 fell into pandemonium when the Supreme Court found that the authorities bureau had authorized the return of belongingss already titled to other parties. Claimants were forced to prosecute their instances entirely through the tribunals. The state of affairs was competently described by Mark Everingham in his article: â€Å"The sudden convergence of electoral democracy and neo-liberal rules thrust the establishment of belongings into a competition between resurgent confiscated involvements and embattled Sandinist constituents.† ( 3 ) The state of affairs has non truly changed to this twenty-four hours. Over shadowing this whole procedure is the issue of the legality of publishing rubrics without holding compensated the former landholders. Within this historical context, Broegaard has written this article to show and compare the sensed land term of office state of affairss of husbandmans within different legal term of office state of affairss. The survey was carried out in three neighboring small towns in south western Nicaragua. In entire 349 families were studied utilizing a combination of quantitive and qualitive methods. The group chosen to analyze were selected to stand for a widespread group of land term of office state of affairss and populating conditions. The survey included small town leaders, co-op leaders, leaders of the farm workers brotherhood, local spiritual leaders and the few affluent and powerful landholders in the country. I was ab initio uneasy with the thought of including these groups in the survey, seeing a potency for the consequences of a little survey to go deformed. But with the benefit of hindsight, I realised that Broegaard was seeking to understand this issue from all positions within the community and he was hence right to include these subdivisions within his survey group. On the web site of the ‘Danish Institute for International Studies’ , this article is introduced in the undermentioned footings: â€Å"A big group of husbandmans in the instance analyze country perceive their term of office state of affairs as being insecure despite the fact that they posses a legal rubric to their land. The article argues that more attending must be paid to facets such as inequalities of wealth and power, deficiency of enforcement and deficiency of nonpartisanship on the portion of the formal establishments when turn toing term of office security in an institutionally unstable puting, such as that found in Nicaragua.† ( 4 ) Broegaard has sought to accomplish these consequences by understanding the complexness of the issues in topographic point, and has moved off from the conceptual model of land term of office security which was developed chiefly by economic experts. Broegaard states that: â€Å"Over the decennaries a re-conceptualization has emerged through the integrating of findings from ( legal ) anthropologists and history.† ( 5 ) He goes on to province that: â€Å"The re-conceptualization brings into the argument the thought that a deficiency of single land rubrics does non needfully intend that the land term of office is insecure, and that single formal rubrics may non significantly strengthen term of office security.† ( 6 ) This re-conceptualization is discussed at great length by Broegaard within this article and is really much at the nucleus of the treatment countries and his decisions. This new conceptual model has allowed him to acknowledge that â€Å"corruption, high costs of land rubrics and a really expensive legal system preclude effectual and equal enforcement of land rubrics, particularly for hapless, little graduated table farmers.† ( 7 ) It has besides allows an accent to be placed upon differences of wealth and power between family, and the development of the thought that rubrics can supply tenure security to some families but non to others. As a remark against what Broegaards describes as econometric surveies, he stated that â€Å"this focal point sidestepped the fact that ; in many contexts, title ownership is non needfully equated with holding a high degree of term of office security.† ( 8 ) This re-conceptualization represents a ample displacement in accent from old articles by Broegaard, and in peculiar, an article co-written in 2002. The article entitled ‘Property Rights and Land Tenure Security in Nicaragua’ took a much more economic position of this relationship, something which is non surprising, sing the support organic structure. In this survey, Broegaard used what he called arrested development analyses. He states that: â€Å"Regression analyses is used to research channels through which belongings rights influence socio-economic results. It is found that formal land paperss cut down term of office insecurity, heighten the value of land, promote consumption of perennial harvests and thereby hike harvest outputs. Formal rubric workss are superior to set down reform paperss. Land rubric has no consequence on recognition, contrary to common premises. Support for land titling appears justified on both equality and efficiency grounds.† ( 9 ) In their decisions to this article, Broegaard, Heltberg and Moller assert the followers: â€Å"The advantage of formal land paperss is that they cut down term of office insecurity and heighten the value of the land. They besides provide better inducements to put in the land and prosecute in long term land usage such as turning perennial harvests, including java. All this consequences in higher end product. Lack of formal rubric and term of office insecurity adversely affect smallholders, and chiefly the poorest among them. There are hence strong statements on both efficiency and equity evidences for intercessions to clear up rights.† ( 10 ) The inquiry must hence be how or why did Broegaard move from a place of comparative certainty sing the benefits of land titling in the 2002 article, to his place of comparative ambiguity in the article under reappraisal? It could be the consequence of a complete alteration of point of view in the three old ages between the two articles, but I do non believe this to be the instance. There is a brief intimation of what was to come at the very terminal of the 2002 article, when he concludes the followers: â€Å"However, the reply to tenure security should non be limited to reforming the land disposal. There is besides a demand for effectual and impartial struggle declaration, and enforcement of belongings rights, for greater stableness and legitimacy of authorities establishments, and for improved governance.† ( 11 ) I believe that the reply to our inquiry lies in the methodological analysis used for the two articles. The displacement from an economic method of looking at statistical informations for accounts, to an anthropological and history based method of field research has been mostly responsible for this alteration in analyses. It is this methodological analysis which forms the anchor of this article and is its great strength. The re-conceptualization procedure that Broegaard has gone through has led to a interrupting down of what defines term of office security. It is no longer what we believe tenure security to be, but the husbandmans ain perceptual experiences and appraisals of their term of office state of affairs which become of import. In specifying his footings, Broegaard states that: â€Å"It will be assumed that husbandmans assessment of their term of office security degree will be influenced by their subjective apprehension of their legal term of office state of affairs, their general outlook sing authorities enforcement and equality of the jurisprudence, every bit good as their appraisal of their entree to the authorities establishments they might necessitate in instance of a conflict.† ( 12 ) He goes on to province that: â€Å"By using the construct of tenure security as seen from the position of the landowners, this survey attempts to supply a broader apprehension of the elements involved in procuring entree and claims to set down, than that which is possible with a purely legal approach.† ( 13 ) I believe that this is a really different, and an highly of import attack to this annoyed inquiry. The attack is justified by Broegaard with the position that it is the sensed term of office state of affairs which is the footing for a landowner’s determination devising, a position I entirely concur with. Where I must go with Broegaard is in relation to the statement which followed: â€Å"The chief ground for this is that people do presume that moral or socially defined rights exist and hey behave consequently, irrespective of whether these are in conformity with formal rights.† ( 14 ) I must state that in a state with the history of Nicaragua, I find it really hard to believe that people truly do posses these premises. I believe that Broagaard is in danger of enforcing west European values and thoughts upon a people who live in a state where corruptness in authorities and within establishments has become the norm. The single narratives of Roberto, and Patrona and Arnofo help to make a image of life in rural Nicaragua, a life where force and menaces are used to act upon belongings minutess, and where the legal position of the land has become irrelevant in making security. We see a image of extremely unequal degrees of information, instruction and acquaintance with formal systems, and a state of affairs where wealth can be seen as the chief beginning of term of office security. Harmonizing to Broegaard, without money it is impossible to utilize the legal system to implement 1s belongings rights. The article shows illustrations of people corrupting functionaries to acquire consequences. Broegaard reflects that: â€Å"The fact that such patterns are mentioned openly shows that they are common and quashi-legitimized in today’s Nicaragua.† This image created by Broegaard non merely provides a valuable penetration into the issues of land term of office in Nicaragua, but besides helps to paint a image of life in the state as a whole. Whilst it is the position of Broegaard that this survey of a peculiar part can be seen as representative of the whole state, I would hold preferred to see the survey being conducted in different parts of the state to see if different forms emerged. This is a little point and non one which should take away from the value of this article as a valuable portrayal of life in this Cardinal American state. Footnotes: Carol Hartman – Who Owns Nicaragua? Madison Land Tenure Centre – State Journal Mark Everingham – Agricultural Property Rights A ; Political Change in Nicaragua in ‘Latin American Politics and Society’ autumn 2001 Ibid Danish Institute for International Studies – web site Rikke J Broegaard – Land Tenure Insecurity and Inequality in Nicaragua Ibid Ibid Ibid Rikke J Broegaard, Ramus Heltberg A ; Nikolas Malchow-Moller – Property Rights and Land Tenure Security in Nicaragua. Research paper for University of Copenhagen Centre for Economic and Business Research. Page 2 Ibid Page 25 Ibid Page 26 Prev cite Broegaard Ibid Ibid

Labor issues surrounding the Department of education

Labor issues surrounding the Department of education Introduction The education department is facing serious labor issues with teachers being mistreated and many saying that teachers are paid way below their qualification. This paper will thus discuss recent labor issues surrounding the department of education and their teachers, specifically those in Seattle, Wisconsin and Pennsylvania.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Labor issues surrounding the Department of education specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It will discuss whether any progress has been made to resolve the issues. The paper will finally discuss the importance these particular cases may have for future cases, particularly for the current situation in New York between the department of education and its employees. Discussion Recent labor issues surrounding the department of education and their teachers in Seattle In Seattle, teaching salaries vary depending on the academic level of the instructor, lo cality, and working experience. Teachers in the state, therefore, get different earnings for their work and this leads to discontentment with those salaries. Teachers at the bottom of the pay scale earn around $47,100 to $51,180 with their counterparts earning around $75,190 to $80,970. These high disparities have led to severe labor issues in the nation department of education (Amarachuku, 2011). The issue of teacher recruitment and retention is another labor issue in Seattle. The capability of teachers to enter and stick to the profession depends on the features of the school as well as the district in which the school is located. Some schools lack the policies required for efficient recruitment and retention of teachers and this has posed a serious labor issue in the state (Amarachuku, 2011). Mistreatment of teachers by principals is another labor issue facing the department of education in Seattle. Head teachers mistreat instructors in terms of ignoring their needs, isolating th em, holding back resources, overloading and even criticizing them (Amarachuku, 2011). Several actions have been taken to resolve the above issues in the state. For instance, school reform organizations in Seattle require that head teachers and instructors work together in a collaborative manner. School principals need to trust their teachers as well as the schools they lead.Advertising Looking for research paper on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This acts as a foundation for a friendly, honest and philosophical professional dialogue in the school organization and this makes it to develop as a powerful community of students who are responsible and competent. The educational department also requires that all teachers confront all types of administrative mistreatment that undermine them as instructors. Recent labor issues surrounding the department of education and their teachers in Wisconsin Teachers in Wis consin on February 26, 2011 protested the planned budget repairs by Governor Scott Walker. The Governor announced that the 2011-2013 budget would include more than $800 million cuts in school funding. This posed a great threat not only to the salaries of teachers, but also to the learning of students across the region. Many people were watching the outcome of the planned actions and it was seen that the outcome would influence negotiations between many state governments in the country and organized labor. Thousands of people working in the education sector were and are facing a lot of difficulties including pay cuts and layoffs. While commenting on the planned actions a special-ed teacher, Jim Kammer, said: â€Å"I knew going into education that some people didn’t like educators, and that’s okay, but this is just disrespectful. Both my husband and I are special-ed teachers, and we went into teaching hoping that we could afford a house and have a solid income to suppor t a family. Now we wonder if we’ll be able to keep our home. It’s not what we wanted for our family.† (Clark, 2011) This crisis caused many teachers to lose a lot of teaching time as schools across the Wisconsin district shutdown with some closing for three days during the first week of protests. The governor was opposed to increasing taxes and argued that the only way to tackle the budget deficit was by union-busting. Teachers across the region argue that the budget deficit is not unique to the region as many other states are facing the same predicaments in their 2012- 2013 budgets. According to Kevin Cunningham, an associate lecturer in the university of Wisconsin, the bill posed a great threat to future teachers; he says, I am trying to remain optimistic, but the bottom line is, is what we ask these future teachers to do worth it? No one goes into teaching expecting to make a lot of money, but people go in expecting to be treated as professionals who are capab le of making decisions about their classrooms, and this bill would strip that from them.† (Clark, 2011)Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Labor issues surrounding the Department of education specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More They argue that although Wisconsin falls in the middle compared to the other states, the worst hit states have not resulted to taking such draconian actions of cutting funding into the education system. The impact of this actions was seen in early March as many schools across Wisconsin began sending preliminary layoff notices to their teaching staff. By March 15, nine Wisconsin districts had given notices to schools to lay off teachers. The Walker’s planned budget repair bill was seen as one that would nullify union contracts held by teachers and this was going to affect many of those who stood to lose their employment without compensation (Clark, 2011). Although the region an d the country as a whole is experiencing large budget deficits, the way to tackle this problem should not be primarily based on reducing funding to schools and laying off teachers. The region should adopt the various ways that other regions in the country are adopting in response to the crisis without necessarily threatening the future of education. Recent labor issues surrounding the department of education and their teachers in Pennsylvania The major problem that is facing the department of education and teachers in Pennsylvania concerning work is that teacher wearing religious symbols in their classes are discriminated. There has been a law in the state of Pennsylvania since 1895 that punishes teachers who wear religious symbols in their classrooms (Andren, 2011). Under the law, any teacher found wearing them could be suspended for one year and if there is a repeat the teacher may be permanently disqualified. The school board members are also criminally liable if they fail to enf orce the law in their schools. This law has come under criticism from many people and Pennsylvanian teachers are fighting it terming as a violation of the first amendment. Teachers in the region have faulted the department of education for enforcing this law and currently there are two members of the Pennsylvanian legislature who are pushing a bill to repeal the law (Andren, 2011). In 2003 a teacher, Brenda Nicole, successfully won a case against her dismissal after she wore a cross necklace in class (KERR, 2011). In April of that year, Brenda was suspended without pay for one year and this led to her suing the school and the education department for wrongful dismissal.Advertising Looking for research paper on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More After winning the case, she was re-instated to her former position and she now continues to serve in her former position as a teacher. This discrimination against teachers has in the past threatened to bring learning to a standstill in the region and, therefore, there is need to have the law repealed or struck down by courts as being unconstitutional (Andren, 2011). The law that discriminates teachers who wear religious symbols in the classrooms should be scrapped as it contravenes the first amendment. Teachers should be allowed to dress the way they want, as long as they are decent and follow the dressing code of schools (KERR, 2011). Importance of these particular cases for future cases particularly; how it could affect the current situation in New York between the department of education and its employees The current situation in the New York’s education sector comprises of about 780 employees losing their jobs as a result of layoffs. The layoffs are the result of budget c uts to academic institutions, and since this has taken place in the last four years, then school principals in the state are now forced into making tough verdicts concerning what and whom to survive without. In the last few years, school aides in New York have been protected from layoffs by federal funds though 5% of them have currently lost their jobs. Financial cuts in the State have cost 2186 instructors their full time working in the city schools. Teachers have been protected from layoffs mostly because of the Bloomberg agreement, which provides them with small allowances in exchange for security of their jobs. New York’s district committee is held responsible for the layoffs. The Department of education statistics shows that the layoffs have caused a large number of teachers to retire leading to several vacancies in the education department. The above cases in Seattle, Wisconsin and Pennsylvania help future cases, for example the cases of teacher layoffs in New York, to be solved. It is surprising that New York also recruits young teachers while laying off excess old teachers. The above cases have helped solve the current situation in New York. In this state, the effect of leadership on student success has become evident with principle makers placing more pressure on head teachers. Rewards and punishments affecting school heads have become increasingly common in the state with the New York law threatening to fire school heads as a probable consequence in poor performing academic institutions. In New York, a small portion of a principal’s pay is determined by the professional standards associated with learner outcomes. These trends signify an increasing acceptance that head teachers play a crucial role in influencing students achievements and should be accountable for it. As a result of the above cases, the role of the school head has swelled to encompass a staggering range of professional duties and competencies. Principals in New York are e xpected to be instructive visionaries, educational and syllabus leaders, evaluation experts, disciplinarians, society builders and guardians of contractual and official mandates. Principals in New York are expected to pay attention to the contradictory wants of students, parents, tutors and federal agencies. The demands of the teaching profession in New York have thus changed so that conventional methods of preparing principals are no longer sufficient to satisfy the leadership challenges in public institutions. References Andren, K. (2011, June). Legislation would allow Pennsylvania teachers to wear religious insignias. Web. Amarachuku, E. C. (2011, June). Finding plan b: critical remedy construction for school districts operating under education equity consent decrees post Seattle and Louisville. Web. Clark, M. (2011, March). Wisconsin Teachers, Students Face Uncertain Future. Web. KERR, C. (2011, September). Teachers’ Religious Garb as an Instrument for Globalization in Ed ucation. Web.

Micro-structure of ceramic, polymer and composite material Assignment

Micro-structure of ceramic, polymer and composite material - Assignment Example According to Whitney (2000), ceramic structures come in a variety and each structure has its own unique properties. For instance, some are very high thermal conductors while some don’t conduct heat at all but they possess other properties. Micro structures of Ceramics also vary in nature as some are pure glass, some crystalline and others are a combination of the two. Ceramics with glassy structures have properties that differ from metallic structures, and the difference in these properties is the atomic structure of the glass (Russell, 2009). Silica is the most common products that makeup glass where when it is fused together then placed in cold temperatures; the glass is formed. The main advantage of ceramic glass is its ability to be made into different shapes when it is still a soft plastic. Ceramics in crystalline form have the metallic and non-metallic atoms which should be balanced for the crystals to be made. During the crystallization, the arrangements in ions mainly determine the manner in which cells will be arranged. Whitney (2000) outlines that crystal structures are neutral in nature and the structures are closely parked together. These ceramics combines the properties of other materials to create a complete product, and they are hard in nature and mechanically stable. According to (Russell, 2009) Nitride ceramics are mainly used to cut wood materials due to their hardness. The process of making nitride ceramics is an irreversible process because of the arrangement in the lattices that are interchangeable. One of the main disadvantages of ceramics is the presence of impurities in the metals, and this affects its formation. There are also some defects that affect the neutrality of the atoms and these defects are, as a result displacement of atoms from their positions, therefore, creating a vacuum. Other shortcomings of ceramics are the formation of solids that lack clear chemical formulae due to their